PSYC122-w19-workbook-answers

Author

Rob Davies

Introduction

In Week 19, we aim to further develop skills in working with the linear model.

We do this to learn how to answer research questions like:

What person attributes predict success in understanding?
Can people accurately evaluate whether they correctly understand written health information?

In Week 19, we use data contributed by PSYC122 students, among others, to figure out our answers to these questions.

We compare PSYC122 results to the results from a previous study so that we can assess the robustness of our findings.

In this class, what is new is our focus on critically evaluating – comparing, reflecting on – the evidence from more than one relevant study.

This work simulates the kind of critical evaluation of evidence that psychologists must do in professional research.

Naming things

I will format dataset names like this:

study-two-general-participants.csv

I will also format variable (data column) names like this: variable

I will also format value or other data object (e.g. cell value) names like this: studyone

I will format functions and library names like this: e.g. function ggplot() or e.g. library {tidyverse}.

The data we will be using

Data from a study we conducted on the response of adults from a UK national participant sample:

study-two-general-participants.csv

Data comprising the responses of PSYC122 students:

2024-25_PSYC122-participants.csv

Notice that study-two participants and the PSYC122 participants were given similar tests but different health information texts to read and respond to.

Answers

Step 1: Set-up

To begin, we set up our environment in R.

Task 1 – Run code to empty the R environment

rm(list=ls())

Task 2 – Run code to load relevant libraries

library("ggeffects")
library("patchwork")
library("tidyverse")

Warning: package 'tidyr' was built under R version 4.1.1

Warning: package 'purrr' was built under R version 4.1.1

Warning: package 'stringr' was built under R version 4.1.1

── Attaching core tidyverse packages ──────────────────────── tidyverse 2.0.0 ──
✔ dplyr     1.1.4     ✔ readr     2.1.4
✔ forcats   1.0.0     ✔ stringr   1.5.0
✔ ggplot2   3.5.1     ✔ tibble    3.2.1
✔ lubridate 1.9.2     ✔ tidyr     1.3.0
✔ purrr     1.0.1     
── Conflicts ────────────────────────────────────────── tidyverse_conflicts() ──
✖ dplyr::filter() masks stats::filter()
✖ dplyr::lag()    masks stats::lag()
ℹ Use the conflicted package (<http://conflicted.r-lib.org/>) to force all conflicts to become errors

Step 2: Load the data

Task 3 – Read in the data files we will be using

The data files are called:

study-two-general-participants.csv
2024-25_PSYC122-participants.csv

Use the read_csv() function to read the data files into R:

study.two.gen <- read_csv("study-two-general-participants.csv")

Rows: 172 Columns: 12
── Column specification ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Delimiter: ","
chr (5): participant_ID, study, GENDER, EDUCATION, ETHNICITY
dbl (7): mean.acc, mean.self, AGE, SHIPLEY, HLVA, FACTOR3, QRITOTAL

ℹ Use `spec()` to retrieve the full column specification for this data.
ℹ Specify the column types or set `show_col_types = FALSE` to quiet this message.

study.122 <- read_csv("2024-25_PSYC122-participants.csv")

Rows: 197 Columns: 20
── Column specification ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Delimiter: ","
chr   (8): ResponseId, GENDER, EDUCATION, ETHNICITY, NATIVE.LANGUAGE, OTHER....
dbl  (10): Progress, DURATION, AGE, ENGLISH.PROFICIENCY, chronic-pain, SHIPL...
lgl   (1): DECISION
dttm  (1): StartDate

ℹ Use `spec()` to retrieve the full column specification for this data.
ℹ Specify the column types or set `show_col_types = FALSE` to quiet this message.

When you read the data files in, give the data objects you create distinct name e.g. study.two.gen versus study.122.

Task 4 – Inspect the data file

Use the summary() or head() functions to take a look at both datasets.

summary(study.two.gen)

 participant_ID        mean.acc        mean.self        study          
 Length:172         Min.   :0.4107   Min.   :3.786   Length:172        
 Class :character   1st Qu.:0.6786   1st Qu.:6.411   Class :character  
 Mode  :character   Median :0.7679   Median :7.321   Mode  :character  
                    Mean   :0.7596   Mean   :7.101                     
                    3rd Qu.:0.8393   3rd Qu.:7.946                     
                    Max.   :0.9821   Max.   :9.000                     
      AGE           SHIPLEY           HLVA           FACTOR3     
 Min.   :18.00   Min.   :23.00   Min.   : 3.000   Min.   :29.00  
 1st Qu.:25.00   1st Qu.:32.75   1st Qu.: 7.750   1st Qu.:47.00  
 Median :32.50   Median :36.00   Median : 9.000   Median :51.00  
 Mean   :35.37   Mean   :35.13   Mean   : 9.064   Mean   :51.24  
 3rd Qu.:44.00   3rd Qu.:39.00   3rd Qu.:11.000   3rd Qu.:56.25  
 Max.   :76.00   Max.   :40.00   Max.   :14.000   Max.   :63.00  
    QRITOTAL        GENDER           EDUCATION          ETHNICITY        
 Min.   : 6.00   Length:172         Length:172         Length:172        
 1st Qu.:12.00   Class :character   Class :character   Class :character  
 Median :14.00   Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Mode  :character  
 Mean   :13.88                                                           
 3rd Qu.:16.00                                                           
 Max.   :20.00

summary(study.122)

  ResponseId         DECISION          Progress     StartDate                  
 Length:197         Mode :logical   Min.   :100   Min.   :2025-01-22 16:09:57  
 Class :character   FALSE:197       1st Qu.:100   1st Qu.:2025-01-25 12:13:27  
 Mode  :character                   Median :100   Median :2025-02-02 04:20:47  
                                    Mean   :100   Mean   :2025-02-04 20:17:56  
                                    3rd Qu.:100   3rd Qu.:2025-02-17 04:18:09  
                                    Max.   :100   Max.   :2025-03-03 04:52:59  
                                                                               
    DURATION           AGE           GENDER           EDUCATION        
 Min.   :   543   Min.   :18.00   Length:197         Length:197        
 1st Qu.:  1420   1st Qu.:19.00   Class :character   Class :character  
 Median :  2088   Median :21.00   Mode  :character   Mode  :character  
 Mean   : 16709   Mean   :30.08                                        
 3rd Qu.:  3255   3rd Qu.:45.00                                        
 Max.   :603255   Max.   :73.00                                        
                                                                       
  ETHNICITY         NATIVE.LANGUAGE    OTHER.LANGUAGE     ENGLISH.PROFICIENCY
 Length:197         Length:197         Length:197         Min.   :1.0        
 Class :character   Class :character   Class :character   1st Qu.:2.0        
 Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Median :3.0        
                                                          Mean   :2.5        
                                                          3rd Qu.:3.0        
                                                          Max.   :3.0        
                                                          NA's   :167        
  OCCUPATION        OCCUPATION_1_TEXT   chronic-pain      SHIPLEY     
 Length:197         Length:197         Min.   :1.000   Min.   :19.00  
 Class :character   Class :character   1st Qu.:1.000   1st Qu.:30.00  
 Mode  :character   Mode  :character   Median :2.000   Median :33.00  
                                       Mean   :2.477   Mean   :32.61  
                                       3rd Qu.:3.000   3rd Qu.:36.00  
                                       Max.   :5.000   Max.   :40.00  
                                                                      
      HLVA           FACTOR3         mean.acc        mean.self    
 Min.   : 2.000   Min.   : 9.00   Min.   :0.4000   Min.   :2.250  
 1st Qu.: 7.000   1st Qu.:44.00   1st Qu.:0.7500   1st Qu.:6.000  
 Median : 9.000   Median :49.00   Median :0.8500   Median :7.000  
 Mean   : 8.574   Mean   :48.39   Mean   :0.8231   Mean   :6.864  
 3rd Qu.:10.000   3rd Qu.:54.00   3rd Qu.:0.9000   3rd Qu.:7.800  
 Max.   :13.000   Max.   :63.00   Max.   :1.0000   Max.   :9.000

Step 3: Compare the data from the different studies

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 5 – Compare the data distributions from the two studies

Q.1. What is the mean of the mean.acc and SHIPLEY variables in the two studies?
A.1. The means are:
study two – mean.acc: mean = 0.7596
study two – SHIPLEY: mean = 35.13
study PSYC122 – mean.acc: mean = 0.8231
study PSYC122 – SHIPLEY: mean = 32.61
Q.2. Draw histograms of both mean.acc and mean.self for both studies.
A.2. You can write the code as you have been shown to do e.g. in 2023-24-PSYC122-w19-how-to.Rmd:

ggplot(data = study.two.gen, aes(x = mean.acc)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = .1) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Mean accuracy (mean.acc)", y = "frequency count") +
  xlim(0, 1)

Warning: Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).

ggplot(data = study.two.gen, aes(x = SHIPLEY)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = 2) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Vocabulary (SHIPLEY)", y = "frequency count") +
  xlim(0, 40)

Warning: Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).

ggplot(data = study.122, aes(x = mean.acc)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = .1) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Mean accuracy (mean.acc)", y = "frequency count") +
  xlim(0, 1)

Warning: Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).

ggplot(data = study.122, aes(x = SHIPLEY)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = 2) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Vocabulary (SHIPLEY)", y = "frequency count") +
  xlim(0, 40)

Warning: Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).

Introduce: make some new moves

Task 6 – Create grids of plots to make the comparison easier to do

hint: Task 6 – What we are going to do is to create two histograms and then present them side by side to allow easy comparison of variable distributions

We need to make two changes to the coding approach you have been using until now.

Before we explain anything, let’s look at an example: run these line of code and check the result.

Make sure you identify what is different about the plotting code, shown following, compared to what you have done before: there is a surprise in what is going to happen.

First, create plot objects, give them names, but do not show them:

plot.two <- ggplot(data = study.two.gen, aes(x = mean.acc)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = .1) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Mean accuracy (mean.acc)", y = "frequency count", title = "Study Two") +
  xlim(0, 1)

plot.122 <- ggplot(data = study.122, aes(x = mean.acc)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = .1) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Mean accuracy (mean.acc)", y = "frequency count", title = "Study PSYC122") +
  xlim(0, 1)

Second, show the plots, side-by-side:

plot.two + plot.122

Warning: Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).
Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).

This is what you are doing: check out the process, step-by-step. (And notice that you repeat the process for each of two (or more) plots.)

ggplot(...) tell R you want to make a plot using the ggplot() function;
plot.one <- tell R you want to give the plot a name; the name appears in the environment;
ggplot(data = study.two.gen ...) tell R you want to make a plot with the study.two data;
ggplot(..., aes(x = mean.acc)) tell R that you want to make a plot with the variable mean.acc;

here, specify the aesthetic mapping, x = mean.acc

geom_histogram() tell R you want to plot values of mean.acc as a histogram;
binwidth = .1 adjust the binwidth to show enough detail but not too much in the distribution;
theme_bw() tell R what theme you want, adjusting the plot appearance;
labs(x = "Mean accuracy (mean.acc)", y = "frequency count", title = "Study Two") fix the x-axis and y-axis labels;

here, add a title for the plot, so you can tell the two plots apart;

xlim(0, 1) adjust the x-axis limits to show the full range of possible score values on this variable.

Do this process twice, once for each dataset, creating two plots so that you can compare the distribution of mean.acc scores between the studies.

Finally, having created the two plots, produce them for viewing:

plot.two + plot.122 having constructed – and named – both plots, you enter their names, separated by a +, to show them in a grid of two plots.

Notice: until you get to step 10, nothing will appear. This will be surprising but it is perfectly normal when we increase the level of complexity of the plots we build.

You first build the plots.
You are creating plot objects and you give these objects names.
The objects will appear in the Environment with the names you give them.
You then produce the plots for viewing, by using their names.

Until you complete the last step, you will not see any changes until you use the object names to produce them for viewing.

This is how you construct complex arrays of plots.

Task 7 – Try this out for yourself, focusing now on the distribution of `SHIPLEY` scores in the two studies

First, create plot objects but do not show them.

Give each plot a name. You will use the names next.

plot.two <- ggplot(data = study.two.gen, aes(x = SHIPLEY)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = 2) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Vocabulary (SHIPLEY)", y = "frequency count", title = "Study Two") +
  xlim(0, 40)

plot.122 <- ggplot(data = study.122, aes(x = SHIPLEY)) + 
  geom_histogram(binwidth = 2) +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "Vocabulary (SHIPLEY)", y = "frequency count", title = "PSYC122") +
  xlim(0, 40)

Second produce the plots for viewing, side-by-side, by naming them.

plot.two + plot.122

Warning: Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).
Removed 2 rows containing missing values or values outside the scale range
(`geom_bar()`).

Q.3. Now use the plots to do some data analysis work: how do the SHIPLEY distributions compare, when you compare the SHIPLEY of study.two.gen versus SHIPLEY of study.122?
A.3. When you compare the plots side-by-side you can see that the SHIPLEY distributions are mostly similar: most people have high SHIPLEY scores.

But you can also see striking differences:

The peak of the distribution – where the tallest bar is – is at a higher SHIPLEY score in study.two.gen (around SHIPLEY = 37-38) than in study.122 (where is it around SHIPLEY = 30).
There appear to be fewer participants with lower SHIPLEY scores in study.122 than in study.two.
Q.4. Is the visual impression you get from comparing the distributions consistent with the statistics you see in the summary?
A.4. Yes: If you go back to the summary of SHIPLEY, comparing the two studies datasets, then you can see that the median and mean are higher in study.two.gen than in study.122.

Step 4: Now use scatterplots and correlation to examine associations between variables

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 8 – Draw scatterplots to compare the potential association between `mean.acc` and `mean.self` in both `study.two.gen` and `study.122` datasets

hint: Task 8 – The plotting steps are explained in some detail in `PSYC122-w17-how-to.Rmd` and you can see example code in `PSYC122-w19-how-to.Rmd`

ggplot(data = study.two.gen, aes(x = mean.self, y = mean.acc)) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.75, size = 3, colour = "darkgrey") +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", size = 1.5, colour = "green") +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "mean self-rated accuracy", y = "mean accuracy") +
  xlim(0, 10) + ylim(0, 1)

Warning: Using `size` aesthetic for lines was deprecated in ggplot2 3.4.0.
ℹ Please use `linewidth` instead.

`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'

ggplot(data = study.122, aes(x = mean.self, y = mean.acc)) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.75, size = 3, colour = "darkgrey") +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", size = 1.5, colour = "green") +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "mean self-rated accuracy", y = "mean accuracy") +
  xlim(0, 10) + ylim(0, 1)

`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'

Task 9 – Create a grid of plots to make the comparison easier to do

hint: Task 9 – We follow the same steps as we used in tasks 6 and 7 to create the plots

We again:

First construct the plot objects and give them names;
create and show a grid of named plots.

Though this time we are producing a grid of scatterplots.

First, create plot objects, give them names, but do not show them:

plot.two <- ggplot(data = study.two.gen, aes(x = mean.self, y = mean.acc)) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.75, size = 3, colour = "darkgrey") +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", size = 1.5, colour = "green") +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "mean self-rated accuracy", y = "mean accuracy") +
  xlim(0, 10) + ylim(0, 1)

plot.122 <- ggplot(data = study.122, aes(x = mean.self, y = mean.acc)) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.75, size = 3, colour = "darkgrey") +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", size = 1.5, colour = "green") +
  theme_bw() +
  labs(x = "mean self-rated accuracy", y = "mean accuracy") +
  xlim(0, 10) + ylim(0, 1)

Second name the plots, to show them side-by-side in the plot window:

plot.two + plot.122

`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'
`geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'

Now use the plots to make comparison judgments.

Q.5. How does the association, shown in the plots, between mean.self and mean.acc compare when you look at the study.two.gen versus the study.122 plot?
hint: Q.5. When comparing evidence about associations in different studies, we are mostly going to focus on the slope – the angle – of the prediction lines, and the ways in which points do or do not cluster about the prediction lines.
A.5. If you examine the study.two.gen versus the study.122 plots then you can see that in both plots higher mean.self scores appear to be associated with higher mean.acc scores. But the trend maybe is a bit stronger – the line is steeper – in study.two.gen.

We are now in a position to answer one of our research questions:

Can people accurately evaluate whether they correctly understand written health information?

If people can accurately evaluate whether they correctly understand written health information then mean.self (a score representing their evaluation) should be associated with mean.acc (a score representing their accuracy of understanding) for each person.

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 10 – Can you estimate the association between `mean.acc` and `mean.self` in both datasets?

hint: Task 10 – We use `cor.test()` as you have been shown how to do e.g. in `PSYC122-w16-how-to.Rmd`

Do the correlation for both datasets.

First, look at the correlation between mean.acc and mean.self in study.two:

cor.test(study.two.gen$mean.acc, study.two.gen$mean.self, method = "pearson",  alternative = "two.sided")


    Pearson's product-moment correlation

data:  study.two.gen$mean.acc and study.two.gen$mean.self
t = 8.4991, df = 170, p-value = 9.356e-15
alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 0.4317217 0.6431596
sample estimates:
      cor 
0.5460792

Q.6. What is r, the correlation coefficient?
A.6. r = 0.5460792
Q.7. Is the correlation significant?
A.7. r is significant
Q.8. What are the values for t and p for the significance test for the correlation?
A.8. t = 8.4991, p = 9.356e-15

Second, look at the correlation between mean.acc and mean.self in study.122:

cor.test(study.122$mean.acc, study.122$mean.self, method = "pearson",  alternative = "two.sided")


    Pearson's product-moment correlation

data:  study.122$mean.acc and study.122$mean.self
t = 5.1742, df = 195, p-value = 5.664e-07
alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
 0.2182522 0.4646729
sample estimates:
      cor 
0.3474471

Q.9. What is r, the correlation coefficient?
A.9. r = 0.3474471
Q.10. Is the correlation significant?
A.10. r is significant
Q.11. What are the values for t and p for the significance test for the correlation?
A.11. t = 5.1742, p-value = 5.664e-07

Now we can answer the research question:

Can people accurately evaluate whether they correctly understand written health information?

Q.12. What do the correlation estimates tell you is the answer to the research question?
A.12.

The correlations are positive and significant, indicating that higher mean.self (evaluations) are associated with higher mean.acc (understanding), suggesting that people can judge their accuracy of understanding.

Q.13. Can you compare the estimates, given the two datasets, to evaluate if the result in study.two.gen is replicated in study.122?
hint: Q.13. We can judge if the result in a study is replicated in another study by examining if – here – the correlation coefficient is significant in both studies and if the coefficient has the same size and sign in both studies.
A.13. If you compare the correlation estimates from both study.two.gen and study.122 you can see:
first, the correlation is significant in both study.two.gen and study.122;
second, the correlation is positive in both studies.

But, if you compare the correlation estimates, you can see that the coefficient estimate is smaller in study.122 (where r = .35) than in study.two.gen (where r = .55).

This may suggest that the association observed in study.two.gen is different from the association in study.122, for some reason.

Task 11 – In working with R to do data analysis, we often work with libraries of function like `{tidyverse}` that enable us to do things (see the week 19 lecture for discussion).

In this way, we are using the {patchwork} library so that we can create plots and then present them in a grid.

Can you find the online information about {patchwork} and use it to adjust the layout of the grids of plots you are using?

hint: Task 11 – To find out more information about a function or a library in R, do a search for the keywords

You can do a search, using any search engine (e.g., Bing, Chrome, Google), by entering:

in r …

And pasting the words you want to know about to replace the ... e.g. “in r patchwork”.

You will then see a list of results including the link to the {patchwork} information:

https://patchwork.data-imaginist.com

Step 5: Use a linear model to to answer the research questions – multiple predictors

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 12 – Examine the relation between outcome mean accuracy (`mean.acc`) and multiple predictors

We specify linear models including as predictors the variables:

health literacy (HLVA);
vocabulary (SHIPLEY);
reading strategy (FACTOR3).

hint: Task 12 – We use `lm()`, as we have been doing before, see e.g. `2023-24-PSYC122-w18-how-to.R`

Task 12 – Examine the predictors of mean accuracy (`mean.acc`), first, for the `study.two.gen` data

model <- lm(mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.two.gen)
summary(model)


Call:
lm(formula = mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.two.gen)

Residuals:
      Min        1Q    Median        3Q       Max 
-0.242746 -0.074188  0.003173  0.075361  0.211357 

Coefficients:
            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept) 0.146896   0.076325   1.925  0.05597 .  
HLVA        0.017598   0.003589   4.904  2.2e-06 ***
SHIPLEY     0.008397   0.001853   4.533  1.1e-05 ***
FACTOR3     0.003087   0.001154   2.675  0.00822 ** 
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 0.097 on 168 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.3636,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.3522 
F-statistic: 31.99 on 3 and 168 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16

Using the model estimates, we can answer the research question:

What person attributes predict success in understanding?

Inspect the model summary, then answer the following questions:

Q.14. What is the estimate for the coefficient of the effect of the predictor SHIPLEY in this model?
A.14. 0.008397
Q.15. Is the effect significant?
A.15. It is significant, p < .05
Q.16. What are the values for t and p for the significance test for the coefficient?
A.16. t = 4.533, p = 1.1e-05
Q.17. Now consider the estimates for all the variables, what do you conclude is the answer to the research question – given the study.two.gen data:

What person attributes predict success in understanding?

hint: Q.17. Can you report the model and the model fit statistics using the language you have been shown in the week 18 lecture?
A.17.

We fitted a linear model with mean comprehension accuracy as the outcome and health literacy (HLVA), reading strategy (FACTOR3), and vocabulary (SHIPLEY) as predictors. The model is significant overall, with F(3, 168) = 31.99, p< .001, and explains 35% of variance (adjusted R2 = 0.35). Mean accuracy was predicted to be higher given higher scores in health literacy (HLVA estimate = .018, t = 4.90, p < .001), vocabulary knowledge (SHIPLEY estimate = .008, t = 4.53, p < .001), and reading strategy (FACTOR3 estimate = .003, t = 2.68, p = .008).

Task 13 – Examine the predictors of mean accuracy (`mean.acc`), now, for the `study.122` data

model <- lm(mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.122)
summary(model)


Call:
lm(formula = mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.122)

Residuals:
     Min       1Q   Median       3Q      Max 
-0.29413 -0.06127  0.01382  0.07539  0.30964 

Coefficients:
            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept) 0.378541   0.070545   5.366 2.29e-07 ***
HLVA        0.018850   0.004156   4.536 1.01e-05 ***
SHIPLEY     0.006917   0.001906   3.630 0.000363 ***
FACTOR3     0.001186   0.001202   0.987 0.324992    
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 0.1142 on 193 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.2351,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.2232 
F-statistic: 19.77 on 3 and 193 DF,  p-value: 3.232e-11

Using the model estimates, we can answer the research question:

What person attributes predict success in understanding?

Inspect the model summary, then answer the following questions:

Q.18. What is the estimate for the coefficient of the effect of the predictor, HLVA, in this model?
A.18. 0.018850
Q.19. Is the effect significant?
A.19. It is significant, p > .05 because p = 1.01e-05
Q.20. What are the values for t and p for the significance test for the coefficient?
A.20. 4.536, p < .001
Q.21. Now consider the estimates for all the variables, what do you conclude is the answer to the research question – given the study.122 data:

What person attributes predict success in understanding?

hint: Q.21. Can you report the model and the model fit statistics using the language you have been shown in the week 18 lecture?
A.21.

We fitted a linear model with mean comprehension accuracy as the outcome and health literacy (HLVA), reading strategy (FACTOR3), and vocabulary (SHIPLEY) as predictors. The model is significant overall, with F(3, 193) = 19.77, p < .001, and explains 22% of variance (adjusted R2 = .2232). Mean accuracy was predicted to be higher given higher scores in health literacy (HLVA estimate = .019, t = 4.54, p < .001) and vocabulary knowledge (SHIPLEY estimate = .007, t = 3.63, p < .001). There was a non-significant effect of individual differences in reading strategy (FACTOR3 estimate = .001, t = .99, p = .325).

At this point, we can evaluate the evidence from the PSYC122 sample – based on your responses – to assess if the patterns, the estimates, we saw previously are repeated in analyses of PSYC122 responses.
Q.22. Are the findings from study.two.gen replicated in study.122?
hint: Q.22. We can judge if the results in an earlier study are replicated in another study by examining if – here – the linear model estimates are significant in both studies and if the coefficient estimates have the same size and sign in both studies.
A.22. If you compare the linear model coefficient estimates from both the study.two.gen and study.122 models, you can see:
first, that the HLVA and SHIPLEY effects are significant in both study.two.gen and study.122;
second, that the estimates of the HLVA and SHIPLEY effects have the same sign – positive – and similar magnitudes in both studies (implying similar effects);
but, third that the estimate of the effect of variation in reading strategy (FACTOR3) is significant in study.two.gen but not in study.122.

This suggests that the attributes – the set of abilities – that predict comprehension accuracy are similar but not the same in the study.two.gen participants compared to the study.122 participants.

Q.23. How would you describe the outstanding difference between the results of the two studies?
hint: Q.23. We can look at the estimates but we can also use the model prediction plotting code you used before, see:
PSYC122-w18-how-to.R
PSYC122-w19-how-to.R
hint: Q.23. Let’s focus on comparing the study.two.gen and study.122 estimates for the effect of HLVA in both models: we can plot model predictions, for comparison:

First: fit the models – using different names for the different models:

model.two <- lm(mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.two.gen)
summary(model.two)


Call:
lm(formula = mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.two.gen)

Residuals:
      Min        1Q    Median        3Q       Max 
-0.242746 -0.074188  0.003173  0.075361  0.211357 

Coefficients:
            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept) 0.146896   0.076325   1.925  0.05597 .  
HLVA        0.017598   0.003589   4.904  2.2e-06 ***
SHIPLEY     0.008397   0.001853   4.533  1.1e-05 ***
FACTOR3     0.003087   0.001154   2.675  0.00822 ** 
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 0.097 on 168 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.3636,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.3522 
F-statistic: 31.99 on 3 and 168 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16

model.122 <- lm(mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.122)
summary(model.122)


Call:
lm(formula = mean.acc ~ HLVA + SHIPLEY + FACTOR3, data = study.122)

Residuals:
     Min       1Q   Median       3Q      Max 
-0.29413 -0.06127  0.01382  0.07539  0.30964 

Coefficients:
            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
(Intercept) 0.378541   0.070545   5.366 2.29e-07 ***
HLVA        0.018850   0.004156   4.536 1.01e-05 ***
SHIPLEY     0.006917   0.001906   3.630 0.000363 ***
FACTOR3     0.001186   0.001202   0.987 0.324992    
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 0.1142 on 193 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.2351,    Adjusted R-squared:  0.2232 
F-statistic: 19.77 on 3 and 193 DF,  p-value: 3.232e-11

Second, create prediction plots for the HLVA effect for each model:

dat.two <- ggpredict(model.two, "HLVA")
plot.two <- plot(dat.two) + labs(title = "Study Two")
dat.122 <- ggpredict(model.122, "HLVA")
plot.122 <- plot(dat.122) + labs(title = "Study PSYC122")

Third, show the plots side-by-side:

plot.two + plot.122

A.23. If we compare the estimates for the coefficient of the HLVA effect in the study.two.gen and study.122 models we can see that:

The health literacy HLVA effect is significant in both study.two.gen and study.122.
The effect trends positive in both studies.
The coefficient estimate is similar in study.122 and in study.two.gen.
The prediction plots suggest the prediction line slope is similar in study.122.
The grey shaded area around the trend line (indicating our uncertainty about the estimated trend) is also similar for study.two.gen and for study.122.

The breadth of the grey shaded area around the trend line is hard to compare between the two plots. You have to look carefully at the y-axis scale information to make a judgment about the relative width of these uncertainty ellipses.
We can redraw the prediction plots to add in more information about our samples. This change, see following, will help us to interpret the results of the analyses we have done.
And that will help you to see why data visualization and data analysis work well together.

Task 14 – In producing prediction plots, we are using functions from the `{ggefects}` library. Can you locate online information about working with the library functions?

Try doing a search with the key words: in r ggeffects.

If you do that, you will see links to the website:

https://strengejacke.github.io/ggeffects/

Task 15 – In the `{ggeffects}` online information, you can see links to practical examples. Can you use the information under “Practical examples” to adjust the appearance of the prediction plots: to make them black and white; to add points?

First create the plots:

dat.two <- ggpredict(model.two, "HLVA")
plot.two <- plot(dat.two, colors = "bw", add.data = TRUE) + labs(title = "Study Two")

dat.122 <- ggpredict(model.122, "HLVA")
plot.122 <- plot(dat.122, colors = "bw", add.data = TRUE) + labs(title = "Study PSYC122")

Then show the plots:

plot.two + plot.122

Q.24. Given the information in the adjusted plots, can you explain what is different about the HLVA effect estimate in the two data-sets?
A.24. Adding points allow us to see:

There are fewer observations in the study.two.gen dataset than in the study.122 data: this means that our estimate of the effect will be a bit more uncertain because we have less information when we look at the study.two.gen data.
But it is also clear that the effect of HLVA appears to be similar in the two data-sets.

Introduction

Naming things

The data we will be using

Answers

Step 1: Set-up

Task 1 – Run code to empty the R environment

Task 2 – Run code to load relevant libraries

Step 2: Load the data

Task 3 – Read in the data files we will be using

Task 4 – Inspect the data file

Step 3: Compare the data from the different studies

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 5 – Compare the data distributions from the two studies

Introduce: make some new moves

Task 6 – Create grids of plots to make the comparison easier to do

hint: Task 6 – What we are going to do is to create two histograms and then present them side by side to allow easy comparison of variable distributions

Task 7 – Try this out for yourself, focusing now on the distribution of SHIPLEY scores in the two studies

Step 4: Now use scatterplots and correlation to examine associations between variables

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 8 – Draw scatterplots to compare the potential association between mean.acc and mean.self in both study.two.gen and study.122 datasets

hint: Task 8 – The plotting steps are explained in some detail in PSYC122-w17-how-to.Rmd and you can see example code in PSYC122-w19-how-to.Rmd

Task 9 – Create a grid of plots to make the comparison easier to do

hint: Task 9 – We follow the same steps as we used in tasks 6 and 7 to create the plots

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 10 – Can you estimate the association between mean.acc and mean.self in both datasets?

hint: Task 10 – We use cor.test() as you have been shown how to do e.g. in PSYC122-w16-how-to.Rmd

Task 11 – In working with R to do data analysis, we often work with libraries of function like {tidyverse} that enable us to do things (see the week 19 lecture for discussion).

hint: Task 11 – To find out more information about a function or a library in R, do a search for the keywords

Step 5: Use a linear model to to answer the research questions – multiple predictors

Revise: practice to strengthen skills

Task 12 – Examine the relation between outcome mean accuracy (mean.acc) and multiple predictors

hint: Task 12 – We use lm(), as we have been doing before, see e.g. 2023-24-PSYC122-w18-how-to.R

Task 12 – Examine the predictors of mean accuracy (mean.acc), first, for the study.two.gen data

Task 13 – Examine the predictors of mean accuracy (mean.acc), now, for the study.122 data

Task 14 – In producing prediction plots, we are using functions from the {ggefects} library. Can you locate online information about working with the library functions?

Task 15 – In the {ggeffects} online information, you can see links to practical examples. Can you use the information under “Practical examples” to adjust the appearance of the prediction plots: to make them black and white; to add points?

Task 7 – Try this out for yourself, focusing now on the distribution of `SHIPLEY` scores in the two studies

Task 8 – Draw scatterplots to compare the potential association between `mean.acc` and `mean.self` in both `study.two.gen` and `study.122` datasets

hint: Task 8 – The plotting steps are explained in some detail in `PSYC122-w17-how-to.Rmd` and you can see example code in `PSYC122-w19-how-to.Rmd`

Task 10 – Can you estimate the association between `mean.acc` and `mean.self` in both datasets?

hint: Task 10 – We use `cor.test()` as you have been shown how to do e.g. in `PSYC122-w16-how-to.Rmd`

Task 11 – In working with R to do data analysis, we often work with libraries of function like `{tidyverse}` that enable us to do things (see the week 19 lecture for discussion).

Task 12 – Examine the relation between outcome mean accuracy (`mean.acc`) and multiple predictors

hint: Task 12 – We use `lm()`, as we have been doing before, see e.g. `2023-24-PSYC122-w18-how-to.R`

Task 12 – Examine the predictors of mean accuracy (`mean.acc`), first, for the `study.two.gen` data

Task 13 – Examine the predictors of mean accuracy (`mean.acc`), now, for the `study.122` data

Task 14 – In producing prediction plots, we are using functions from the `{ggefects}` library. Can you locate online information about working with the library functions?

Task 15 – In the `{ggeffects}` online information, you can see links to practical examples. Can you use the information under “Practical examples” to adjust the appearance of the prediction plots: to make them black and white; to add points?